Category Archives: Articles

September 19, 2026 · 10:00 AM

History of Everyday Objects Undusted: Glue

I’ll bet that you have a few glues in your house right now – whether that’s white “school” glue (= PVA, or polyvinyl alcohol), glue sticks, or wood glue. It’s basically ubiquitous in first-world homes, but it has a long history.

In prehistoric times, plant resins and tars were used to “glue” stone tools to wooden handles, sometimes secured additionally with sinew or strips of bark. By the time of the ancient Egyptians, they were using animal-based glues extracted from the collagen found in bones, fish, and hides; these were used, e.g., in the construction of chariots and furniture, as well as for repairing small household items much like we do today.

The Romans and Greeks further refined glue once they’d discovered the adhesive properties of casein, a protein found in milk. This improved glue was used to paint and gild objects, be used in the construction of buildings, and to make papyrus scrolls; these scrolls were made by slicing thin strips from the inner pith of papyrus reeds, gluing them together, and pressing them into crisscross patterns. I think the fact that thousands of Roman constructions still stand today attests to their skills and the materials they chose or developed to accomplish such longevity.

Their glue was so well made that the formula remained largely unchanged up through the Middle Ages; it was widely used in bookbinding, carpentry, and in luxury items such as musical instruments. Attempts were made to improve glue formulas using things like egg whites and even blood, but these had a limited shelf life, as you can imagine.

The Industrial Revolution raised the need for reliable and durable glue compounds to meet the demands of machinery and rapid production. During this time, glue was made mainly with slaughterhouse waste, by boiling it down to collect the collagen, which, as it boiled down, became gelatine. When this cooled, it was dried into hard sheets, cakes or granules that could be shipped, then reconstituted with water into glue.

*AI Image; as always, it gives you a good idea of what it might have been like, but also, always take it with a hefty pinch of salt!*

In 1824, the Scottish chemist and inventor Charles Macintosh developed the eponymous Mackintosh raincoat (the variant in his family name’s spelling is a standard spelling when applied to the raincoat) by dissolving natural rubber in coal naphtha (which is benzene, a natural element derived from the refining of petroleum – it’s the sweet smell that gives gasoline its characteristic aroma) to create a waterproof adhesive, which was then sandwiched between two layers of cloth to make an impermeable coat (in a country that has over 500 words for water or snow, and winds that rip umbrellas into tulips faster than you can blink, raincoats are a matter of survival!). The path from the first raincoat to what we know today as a Mackintosh is a roundabout one, with many improvements made over time, but the history of its development shows how far we’ve come.

One of the glues I mentioned, PVA, was invented in 1912 by German chemist Fritz Klatte; he was looking for a way to use acetylene, a colourless gas that is unstable in its pure form and thus needs to be handled in a solution. PVA glue is used to make standard white glues (“school” glue), strong wood glues, and the dissolvable films around some dishwasher detergent pods; it helps to coat and strengthen paper products during the manufacturing process, and it’s even used in biomedical products such as eye drops, wound dressings, and contact lenses. It is controversial, as PVA is one of the most common plastics and, as such, does not break down organically in the environment. Hopefully we are on the cusp of another leap forward in the development of stable, environmentally-friendly glues.

In my craft room, I have no less than twenty different glues that immediately come to mind. They all have different properties, drying times, adhesive qualities, and durability. Some, I may need only as a placeholder before something is sewn, or as a less-adhesive inner glue to be strengthened by a different glue around the edge of a project. Some can be diluted in water, while others would clump. From glue sticks to hot glue, from diamond glaze to mat medium, they all have their uses.

We’ve come a long way since tar and the slaughterhouse – thank goodness!

What kinds of glues do you have in or around your home right now? Let us know in the comments!

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Tagged as Ancient adhesives, Ancient Egyptians, Bookbinding, carpentry, Charles Macintosh, Collagen, Fritz Klatte, gelatine, Glue, Greeks, History Undusted, Industrial Revolution, Mackintosh Raincoat, Papyrus Scrolls, PVA, Roman construction, Romans

August 15, 2026 · 10:00 AM

History of Everyday Objects Undusted: Garment Fasteners

For as long as humans have worn clothes, they’ve needed to find ways to hold them on, up, around, or to their bodies. Genesis 3:7 tells us that, once Adam and Eve realised they were naked, they “sewed fig leaves together and made coverings for themselves”. They likely sewed them with some kind of twisted or stripped plant fibres such as grass blades, green twigs or even fibrous roots; this method was used for millennia.

In Ancient Athens, tunics were fastened together at the shoulder by long dagger-like pins. That is, until a group of angry Athenian women used their pins to stab an Athenian soldier to death; according to Herodotus’s Histories, a law was passed forbidding the Athenian style of tunic in the Roman Empire thereafter. Understandable, that, but I wonder what Athenians used to fasten their tunics immediately after that decree…

Clothing fasteners (hardware or notions used to connect two or more pieces of fabric together to open, close, or secure a garment) used today vary: Buttons, whether plastic, wood or metal; zippers; hooks and loops (commonly known as Velcro); eyelets (aka grommets); snaps; buckles; suspenders with clips; hooks and eyes (such as those found on skirts or bras), and even safety pins.

But before any of these came along, people literally sewed their garments on; even into 18^th Century Europe, women were stitched in or pinned in by maids; Jane Austen alludes to this in Northanger Abbey, when Mrs Allen complains that a needle holding her sleeve in place was jabbing her, and she was afraid it would rip the muslin, for which she paid “but nine shillings a yard”. Every evening, they were either “unsewn” out of them, or they slipped some garments over their heads if possible. Corsets, as well as fashionable garments, were laced on, easier to remove than put on. When metal fasteners became increasingly available, it introduced new possibilities in fashion: it allowed for more fitted garments, and gave women the freedom from the need of being dressed by maids (or, if lower classes, of being dependent on a relative to help one dress). It didn’t dispense with corsets, but the metal front-fastening busks enabled women to put on their own.

If shoes are to be thought of as clothing, their history probably goes back as far as that of clothing itself: The oldest known shoes were sandals made of woven bark, dated to around 10.5 thousand years old. The first known leather shoes, found in Armenia, date to around 3,500 BC. Oetzi, the Austrian Iceman, wore shoes constructed of bearskin soles, deerskin side panels, and a bark cord that held them onto his feet. The modern shoelace, with the stiffened aglet, or tip, was invented by the Englishman Harvey Kennedy, patented in 1790. Before that, shoes were held on with buckles or buttons.

Today, some people (like me) usually have slip-on, fastener-free clothing articles like T-shirts, or trousers with elastic bands that require no other fasteners. What kinds of fasteners do you typically have on your garments today?

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Tagged as Buckles, Buttons, Clothing Fasteners, Eyelets, Garments, Grommets, History Undusted, leather, modern fasteners, Sewing, Shoelaces, Shoes, Snaps, Velcro, woven bark, Zippers

July 25, 2026 · 10:00 AM

Etymology Undusted: Old Norse Borrowings

As we’ve seen over the past few blogs, English is quite a magpie language, snabbling any loose vocabulary it comes across.

What is known as the Viking Age began in Britain with the raid on the coastal community of Lindisfarne in AD 793. It eventually went from raiding easy targets to Norse colonisation, trade, and cultural assimilation. That’s the simplified version; I could write forever about the age and its impact on the languages, cultures and mentalities of both the raided and the raiders (who came from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark). Instead, I’ll focus on the linguistic impact of Old Norse (ON) on Old English (OE).

[Note: The Norse did not refer to themselves as Vikings; that word came into English through “The History of the Anglo-Saxons” by English historian Sharon H. Turner, 1801, meaning Scandinavian pirate. The Norse had the term vikingr, which referred only to Norsemen when they were out raiding (whether on neighbouring shores or fjords, or further afield). Perhaps in that sense, it was similar in use to our gerund noun form.]

During the Viking Age and the subsequent Danelaw period of British history, the Norse introduced more than a thousand words into the English language. The biggest question that arises in my mind when I think of some of the words is, “What did we use before that?”

The Norse introduced third-person pronouns – þeir, þeira, from which we get they, them, and their. We can be thankful for these words, as the Anglo-Saxon terms used before their introduction were hi, hie, heira, and hem. These changes are unusual in that it is rare for additions to a language to replace such fundamental identity markers within the collective speech of a people group.

Some words were a merging of OE and ON terms, such as are (OE had earun/earon, and ON had er). Another merging is awkward – from ON ǫfugr (meaning turned backwards) and OE weard. Other such hybrid words are axle, gawk, and snipe/sniper.

A caveat to Norse influence on English is that many more words than those from the time periods mentioned above flowed into English through Normandy. The term “Norman” itself is a term that arose from an etymological shift: Scandinavian raiders who settled in that region of what would become France were known locally as the Normanz or Normant, meaning Northmen (men of the north). It was eventually Latinized to Normanni. Their influence on the French language eventually made its way into the magpie language across the Channel.

Here are a few more words we can thank Norse raiders for: Window (vindauge – literally wind-eye); wing (vængr); whisk (viska); want (vanta, to lack); waive (veifa); until (und + til); ugly (uggligr); tryst (from French, probably ON treysta – to trust, or to make firm); stumble (stumla); squall (skvala); sprint (spretta); and trash (tros). Many of our th- words come from ON, aside from those already mentioned, such as: Thrall, though, thrift, thrive, thrust, and thwart.

Aside from individual words, the Norse left evidence of their influence through placenames: The suffix -by means farmstead or village, seen in Whitby and Derby; -ness meant promontory or headland, and is found in Stenness, Durness, Muness, and Snarraness – all of which are in Orkney, Shetland, and northern Scotland – all places frequented by or lived in by the Norse. –Thorpe and –thwaite are more examples of the -th heritage, shown in places like Scunthorpe, Copmanthorpe, Bassenthwaite, and Rosthwaite.

These few examples are just the tip of the isbjerg which we can thank those pirates, who our European ancestors might well have preferred never to have been forced into acquaintance with…

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Tagged as -by, -ness, -thorpe, -thwaite, Borrowings, Britain, British History, Danelaw, Dankish, Etymology, French, History Undusted, Language, Lindisfarne, Linguistics, Normandy, Norse Placenames, Norwegian, OE, Old English, Old Norse, ON, Orkney, Scotland, Shetland, Swedish, Viking Age

July 11, 2026 · 10:00 AM

Etymology Undusted: Brittonic Remnants

While many English words can be traced back to an event, such as the French absorbed into the language after 1066, some words we use today can be traced much further back to the formation of the language.

English itself is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family. During the period of Roman Britain (AD 43 to AD 410), what we know as Britain today spoke Brittonic dialects and languages, influenced by the Celtic migration from the Continent around 1300-800 BC; during the Roman occupation, many words from Latin were assimilated, and English as a language began to emerge around 450 AD. Old English would be unintelligible to most English speakers today; I won’t go into the history of the Great Vowel Shift again, which fundamentally changed the sound of the language, but suffice to say, we still use many Old English words today. Famously, Winston Churchill used many Old English words in his “We shall never surrender” speech, delivered just after the evacuation from Dunkirk was successfully completed. Old English words tend to be short, giving the speech more emphasis; click on this link for a clip from the film Darkest Hour, portraying the speech. As one man in the clip says, he mobilised the English language and sent it into battle.

Even though English as a language has adapted, evolved and adopted words from around the globe since its inception, there are ancient words from Brittonic which we still use today. Here are a few:

Ass, crag, doe, wan, combe (valley), peat, hog, gull, brock, bin, coracle, flannel, and bannock. Possible words (etymology is unclear, but these are suspected to be Celtic British) include basket, sark (a shirt or smock in Scotland and northern England), wan, and dun.

Among the place names from Brittonic are Avon, Derwent, York, Leeds, and London. The elements of Aber-, Caer-, Pen-, and Dun– are typical Brittonic place-name derivatives; these include: Aberdeen, Aberfeldy, Cardiff, Carlisle, Penzance, Dumbarton, Dundee, and Dumfries.

Some of these words are more common, for instance, in Scotland than in America, but they are still words used today. As you can imagine, the farther back we go in history, the more we’ll realise that earlier words have been usurped by “modern” ones – even if “modern” refers to a thousand years ago. What we know today only as “eggs” once had a variety of spellings: æg, ei, ey, eai, egge, eyern, eyeren, eggys, eggja. All of these were in use until William Caxton (c. 1422 – c. 1491) decided on eggs (thank you!). Only because of him do we spell it thus, and not æg or anything else.

I realise that all of this is an over-simplification, but it would be impossible to do justice to a language that has been developing for well over a thousand years, no matter how many books have been written on the subject. Hopefully, this little insight gives you a deeper appreciation for the fact that your spouse can write “eggs” on the shopping list and that you understand the term!

(AI Gen Image)

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Tagged as Brittonic, Celtic migration, Darkest Hour, Dunkirk, Great Vowel Shift, Indo-European, Military History, Place Names, Roman Britain, The spellings of Egg, We shall never surrender, West Germanic, William Caxton, Winston Churchill, World War 2, YouTube

June 27, 2026 · 10:00 AM

Etymology Undusted: British Colonial English Borrowings

Just as language in 11th-century Britain needed to adapt to facilitate communication between the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman French-speaking ruling class, when Britain eventually expanded into what became the British Empire, the nations under their rule absorbed English for the same reasons. English is known as the common language that divides; Caribbean English has little to do with Indian English; Australian English has little to do with Creole English. The rich linguistic diversity that resulted from geopolitical constellations is something we still benefit from today. English is still absorbing new words from other languages, such as umami (Japanese); many new words may only be understood in local regions before they spread to wider use.

British English has many words imported from the time of Colonialism, from India, the Caribbean, Australia, and Africa. Over time, many of those words have been exported to the colonies of the New World, and so they are familiar to English speakers outside of the colonial regions of the former British Empire. Here are a few words we owe to Indian languages (which number over 120; if you count dialects, it can be into the high thousands):

From Hindi, we have: Jungle, pajamas (pyjamas), pundit, bungalow, cushy, monsoon, avatar, bangle, bandana, chutney (and many spice names, such as garam masala), cheetah, cot, cummerbund, dinghy, dungaree, juggernaut, khaki, karma, loot, mantra, punch, pukka*, shampoo, typhoon, and veranda – to name a few.

*Pukka is a modern British slang word meaning superior, excellent, first-class.

From the Indian Tamil language, we have catamaran and curry; from Malayalam, we have calico and jackfruit; from Kannada, we have bamboo; from Sanskrit, we have atoll, aubergine, basmati, candy, carmine and crimson, cowrie, crocus, ginger, jute, lacquer, lilac, mandala, mandarin, musk, nard, opal, orange, pepper, rice, sapphire, sandalwood and shawl.

From Australia, many Aboriginal words have spread throughout the English-speaking world and beyond; here are the most common: kangaroo, koala, dingo, wombat, kookaburra, boomerang, gammon, cheeky, lingo,moola (money), and wallaby.

African words that have made it into English include banjo, jazz, cola, chigger, ebony, goober, gumbo, impala, jive, jukebox, jumbo, mojo, okra, safari, tango, jam, and zebra.

From the indigenous Caribbean languages, we get words like barbecue, canoe, cassava, guava, hammock, hurricane, iguana, maroon, potato, savanna, and reggae.

This list could be pages long, as the British Empire influenced, as well as absorbed, languages and vocabulary from around the world.

Do you know of any others to add to the list? Please add them, and where they come from, below!

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Tagged as Africa, Australia, Borrowings, British Colonialism, Caribbean, Etymology, Hindi, India, Linguistics, Tamil

June 13, 2026 · 10:00 AM

Etymology Undusted: Native American Borrowings

Though some of these words have probably made it across the Pond, American English is the focus of these borrowings: When the pioneers and explorers began moving westward across the North American continent, they encountered geographical features, plants, animals, and situations for which they as yet had no word; thus, the Native American words were borrowed. I won’t go into the sordid history of colonisation’s tactics here; suffice to say, it was not a mutual exchange once Europeans began arriving in larger numbers.

According to some estimates, nearly half of the U.S. state names derive from or are directly related to the regional indigenous tribes. Here are a few place name examples: Chicago (from the Miami-Illinois Myaamiaki tribe’s word, shikaakwa, wild onion); Dakota (from the Sioux language, meaning friend or ally); Oklahoma (from Choctaw, red people); Utah comes from the Ute tribe; Mississippi (from the Ojibwe phrase misi-ziibi, meaning great river); Milwaukee (Algonquian, meaning good land); Alabama (from the Alabama tribe, Alibamu); Alaska (from the Aleut word alaskag or alyeska, meaning mainland or great land); Connecticut (from the Mohican/Algonquian word quinnehtukqet, meaning beside the long tidal river); Iowa was named for the Ioway people, commonly interpreted as beautiful land; Kansas, named for the Kansa/Kaw tribe, often translated as people of the south wind; Wichita, Kansas was named for the Wichita tribe.

Some animal names include caribou, chipmunk, husky, moose, muskrat, opossum, raccoon, skunk, woodchuck, coyote, ocelot, mole, chinchilla and condor.

Some geographical features include Lake Tahoe (Big Water); Potomac River (Place where people trade); Mount Moosilauke, New Hampshire, from moosi and auke, meaning bald place; Mount Tamalpais, California (from the Coast Miwok people, meaning bay mountain);

One example of the reverse is that the Ochese Creek tribe were called Creek after the geographical feature. Creek is likely from Old Norse kriki, meaning corner or nook, extended to inlet or short arm of a river; a Swedish dialect has krik, meaning corner, bend or creek, cove.

And finally, a few botanical borrowings (including some from the Nahuatl, or Aztec, tribe*): Hickory, pecan, persimmon, squash, succotash, chayote, pawpaw (tree), guava, avocado*, tomato*, guano*, mesquite*, and mezcal*.

Do you know any other words borrowed from Native American languages? Please share them in the comments!

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Tagged as Aleut, Algonquian, Alibamu, animal names, Aztec, botanical, Choctaw, Etymology, geographical, Ioway, Kansa, Kaw, Linguistics, Miwok, Mohican, Myaamiaki, Nahuatl, Native American Borrowings, Ochese Creek, Old Norse, Place Names, Sioux, Ute, Wichita

May 30, 2026 · 10:00 AM

Etymology Undusted: German Borrowings

As English and German are offshoots of the same branch of the language tree, we share many words in common, but because I speak both English and German (High German, as well as the Zürich dialect of Swiss German), it’s difficult for me to know how many German borrowings are widely used in the English-speaking regions of the world. There are more such borrowings, for instance, in American English (because of the German-speaking immigrants that brought their mother-tongue along with them) than in British English, which was more heavily influenced by French (up until the French Revolution, when Francomania fell out of fashion in Britain for fear that the spark of revolution would ignite revolt in their own peasant classes. But that’s another story!).

Perhaps another complication for me personally in deciphering what German words are used elsewhere is that I grew up in a region with Amish communities who spoke a language similar to German (known as Pennsylvania Dutch or Pennsylvania German – a dialect of German imported around 300 years ago) – so we used words like Gesundheit (when someone sneezed) rather than the more common “bless you”.

With all of that in mind, here are a few words that English has nicked directly from German:

Gesundheit, kindergarten, angst, dachshund, hamster, pretzel, sauerkraut, delicatessen, hamburger, gummy bear, zeitgeist, kitsch, fife, uber (über), neanderthal, doppelgänger, ersatz, zeppelin, rucksack, knapsack, kaput, quartz, schadenfreude, bagel, blitz, fest, glitch, muesli, noodle, schnapps, strudel, poltergeist, waltz, carabiner, cobalt, echt, edelweiss, eiderdown, einkorn, gestalt, verboten, wanderlust, wunderkind, finger, glass, übermensch, leitmotif, bratwurst, kaffeeklatsch, diesel, and the list goes on and on!

Some words in English have been borrowed, especially in America, from what is known as Yinglish – New York Yiddish mixed with English (mainly from the Ashkenazi Jewish community). A few examples are: Mensch, klutz, schmuck, dreck, spiel, schmooze, shlep, kosher, mazel tov, putz, tush/tuchus and yenta.

Are any of these words new to you? Which ones do you use? Which ones are used in your region?

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Tagged as American English, Amish, Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants, Borrowings, British English, English Etymology, French Revolution, German, Immigrants, Immigration, Linguistics, Pennsylvania Dutch, Pennsylvania German, Regional Vocabulary, Yiddish, Yinglish

May 16, 2026 · 10:00 AM

Etymology Undusted: Latin Borrowings

Believe it or not, the language second only to French in English borrowings is Latin. In all, it is estimated that up to 56% of English borrowings come from French and Latin (and since many French words come from Latin, it could be argued that Latin has had the greatest impact on the English language).

The Germanic tribes that fought the Roman Empire eventually moved west into what we know today as the British Isles; before they came, they’d already packed their linguistic bags with Latin terms, such as candle (candelabrum), cheese (caseum), camp (castra – from which we also derive castle), mile (mille passus, from which we also get [geographical] pass), mint (menta – for coins), pound (libra – for a weight unit, and from which the British pound sign £ is derived), and street (via strata), to name a few (many more were added during the period of Roman Britain, 55 BC – AD 410). The language of these ancient settlers was the ancestor of what would become English, but these tribes wrote in runes, and the language they spoke would be unintelligible to us today, as it had complex genders/noun cases and distinct vowel shifts.

Ancient Latin often borrowed words from Greek and then passed them on through the Romance languages to English, often through French. Some examples from Greek via Latin are school, anatomy, philosophy, music, machine, olive, bacteria, lamp, topic, idea, and place.

When Christian missionaries arrived in Britain in the 6^th and 7^th centuries, they brought Latin terms with them to describe new concepts. At that time, Latin was the Lingua Franca of medieval Europe. Sometimes, both the Old English and the Latin terms survived, such as OE Gospel (gödspell) and Latin evangelium (which comes from the Greek for “good news”; this is still the word used in German today). During that period, Latin terms tended to be used only in a religious context, with Old English being used in everyday life.

Latin moved beyond cathedral walls via science and technology; the era of scientific discovery required new words to describe new areas of knowledge and understanding. Words like carnivorous, apparatus, data, experiment, incubate, organic, structure, vertebra, and component entered the vocabulary during that time.

Other words borrowed from Latin include:

Absent, alter, amble, acceptable, agriculture, amiable, animal, appear, announce, aviary, barbarian, beatitude, benefit, campus, candidate, circumspect, civic, conspicuous, council, custody, deity, dictionary, digital, dragon, edible, extra, figure, focus, genus, habitat, imperial, invent, labour, legacy, library, marine, mediocre, medium, perfect, port, respect, ridicule, scholar, science, serpent, serve, superb, and so many more… ad infinitum!

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Tagged as AI-Gen Image, Borrowed Words, Borrowings, Germanic, greek, Latin, Linguistics, Roman Britain, Roman Empire

May 8, 2026 · 2:57 PM

Just for Fun & a Little Announcement

For the past year or so, my blogs have been posted (mostly) every two weeks on a Wednesday. In the past few months, Wednesdays have been booked, and I realised that it’s not the best day either for me to upload a blog or for most people to read it. So I’ve decided to move my posting day to Saturdays. The weekends are usually when I personally have time to read blogs or catch up on YouTube channels that I follow, so I can imagine that others have the same time priorities through the week of work, commitments or activities, and have more time on weekends.

So from now on, look for my posts on the weekends! In the meantime, I’ll leave you with this fun wink to my last post:

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Tagged as Announcement, Cartoon, French Army Knife, Future blogs on weekends, Just for Fun

March 18, 2026 · 10:40 PM

BOBs: Emergency Preparedness

Back in 2020, I wrote an article about preparedness in connection with lockdown, viruses, and being shut in over longer periods of time. Then life went back to normal, people came out of their caves and learned to socialise again… carefully. At a distance. Introverts mourned the passing of a perfect excuse to avoid people, and extroverts went right back to hugging everyone in sight. We may not have lockdown anymore, but we now have a more looming threat: Climate Change.

Depending on where you live in the world, you may feel different effects of the climate change and its consequences: Whether that’s increased storm violence of hurricanes, tornadoes, flooding or drought (these last two are related, as the jet stream has been disrupted; it dumps too much water in one place and leaves another place dry because it has become lethargic), or increased earthquakes and/or volcanic activity (ice melt has been linked to the destabilization of the Earth’s crust, leading to seismic and tectonic shifts; this is known as glacially-induced faulting, or bookshelf faulting).

Whatever your focus, preparation will become increasingly important (other factors may include political or social unrest). Some things are out of our control, but we can be prepared in case evacuation or hunkering down (“bug-in”) becomes necessary. Think of this as a mental exercise in preparedness; it is by no means a comprehensive list, because as I mentioned, everyone has a different focus: Those living in Tornado Alley will not have the same needs as those living along tectonic faultlines; those living in tropical cyclone basins will have a different focus than those living in places like Niscemi, Italy, or in the rumbling caldera around Naples. But whatever your individual needs are, there are some things we can all prepare. I’m sure it doesn’t need to be said, but I am no expert in emergency preparedness; everyone needs to gauge their own needs. The following points are suggestions and things to think about as you get ready to face your region’s challenges.

Bug-Out Bags (BOBs) are bags that should be ready to go and cover your needs for around 4 days; it might be a sports bag or backpack, or a water-tight, lidded bucket – something transportable and quick to grab as you head out, up, or down.
One rule for preparedness is the “Rule of 3s”: You can survive 3 minutes without air; 3 hours in a harsh environment without shelter; 3 days without water; 3 weeks without food.

Air: keep air-filtering masks on hand to mitigate smoke inhalation or chemical fumes. If you don’t have access to such masks in an emergency, a damp* shirt over nose and mouth may help reduce harmful inhalation. A damp cloth over an animal’s carrier case will help them, too. [*Damp, not soaking, which can inhibit breathing. Dampness traps particulates better than a dry cloth.]
Shelter: Clothing would fall under the rule of shelter. Keep an extra set of clothing (think seasonal/layers) in your car, as well as blankets (fire-resistant blankets if forest fires are a threat), or have a list of what to grab if you need to evacuate. In the chaos of such moments, you might not have time to think, so knowing what, where and how to pack quickly is an important skill to cultivate. If a disaster forces you out into the elements, you’ll need warm, dry clothing on hand. Other shelter items to think about might be a tent (e.g. Mylar tents are lightweight, retain heat and repel water), or a space blanket (they look like foil), which could be used as a make-shift shelter. While thinking of shelter, think of what your pets/animals might need: A carrying case ready to grab; a litter box for cats if you’re evacuating.
Water: The recommended amount is about 4 litres (1 gallon) per person per day. Think about other things that might require water in your situation, such as pets or other animals, and even flushing toilets, cleaning, etc. and plan accordingly. Another thing to think about is accessing clean water after the event; water filter straws such as HydraMate or LifeStraw are widely available online and can be kept in your BOB.
Medicines, First Aid kits: Ensure you have sufficient (more than minimal) medicine at home, especially if not having it could be life-threatening. Have a well-stocked First Aid box, preferably in an airtight, watertight container, with medicines, bandages, disinfectants, pain killers, burn gel, sunscreen, medical gloves, and basic first-aid instructions (CPR, using a tourniquet, how to stop bleeding, etc.).
Foods: Keep a ready stock of food and water in your home*; if you live in areas where your home may become flooded, keep those supplies on the upper floor; if you face forest fires, take supplies like water and canned foods (with opener if needed) to your car. Think also of your pets – stock enough food for them. When a storm is coming, it’s too late to go shopping, as there are often panic-shoppers and empty shelves in such moments. [*Stock up on foods you eat, and make those choices healthy and nutrient-rich, not high-caloric, low-nutrient, or high-sodium, which will increase thirst. Rotate eating those foods and replenishing them in non-emergency times, so that what you take when you need it is fresh.]
Vehicle: If you need to evacuate by car, think of having an extra can of petrol/gasoline either at home to take with you, or keeping one in your car. Traffic jams consume fuel.
Power: If you can, get a portable power station. These can be kept charged and ready to go, to charge your phones, to power lights, fans or tools you may need in the aftermath of a storm. Our power station has come in handy on many occasions; due to local construction, our power line was once knocked out for several hours, and we could plug our refrigerator into the power station, preserving the food until it was restored. It’s also practical for daily things, such as charging cell phones quickly or powering our telescope on the balcony. Another “power” source is a lighter or fire-starters; these might be needed if you are without shelter, especially in colder weather. Remember your cell phone: The light could be used to signal for help. In the fires that hit Texas a few years ago, a man got turned around in the smoke. He used his phone’s light to flash SOS for help; a science drone spotted him, and he was guided to safety. If battery power on your phone needs to be conserved, a good ol’ fashioned flashlight is an essential BOB item – hand-cranked versions are available.
Portable radio: This might be vital to keeping up with a storm’s trajectory or hearing meteorological reports. The best kind to get, if you want to be independent of battery charge levels or electricity, is a hand-cranked version (some of these have additional solar options).
Tools: Keep a few tools in your BOB; a Swiss Army knife that has scissors, etc., will come in handy. A playing card or piece of plastic wrapped with layers of duct tape will save space in your BOB, but give you the option if you need it. A small sewing kit can be used to repair clothing or tent rips, or even for emergency medical stitches.
Papers: Think about keeping a copy of vital information in your BOB: Insurance, bank, medical, ID… anything you might need if your home is lost. Keep it in a double-Ziplock bag-in-a-bag. Also, make a list of all addresses and phone numbers of your closest friends and family – most people don’t even know their spouse’s cell phone numbers by heart. If your cell phone dies, is lost, or is damaged, and you need to use another phone, you’ll need those numbers. And don’t forget to keep a bit of emergency cash on hand; in a wider disaster such as flood or fire, infrastructure will be knocked out – no ATMs, no credit card-reading machines…

These are just a few things to think about for your BOB preparation. I live in a stable, peaceful country with good governance and solid, maintained infrastructure, but these are blessings, and were not a “given” even a generation ago. I live in Central Europe; there are a lot of bat-ship crazy folk not all that far from our borders, and even if they do nothing, all it takes is a Krakatoa. Personally, I’m grateful that if all else fails, I can still trust Jesus – that gives me a peace that passes understanding (Philippians 4:7)!

I hope this list helps you and sparks ideas for your own BOB!